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Big Bang,citation needed and is calculated to be responsible for the formation of most of the universes helium as the isotopehelium 4 4. He, along with small amounts of the hydrogen isotope deuterium 2. H or D, the helium isotope helium 3 3. He, and a very small amount of the lithium isotope lithium 7 7. Li. In addition to these stable nuclei, two unstable or radioactive isotopes were also produced the heavy hydrogen isotope tritium 3. H or T and the beryllium isotope beryllium 7 7. Be but these unstable isotopes later decayed into 3. He and 7. Li, as above. Essentially all of the elements that are heavier than lithium were created much later, by stellar nucleosynthesis in evolving and exploding stars. CharacteristicseditThere are several important characteristics of Big Bang nucleosynthesis BBN The initial conditions neutron proton ratio were set in the first second after the Big Bang. The universe was very close to homogeneous at this time, and strongly radiation dominated. The fusion of nuclei occurred between roughly 1. Big Bang this corresponds to the temperature range when the universe was cool enough for deuterium to survive, but hot and dense enough for fusion reactions to occur at a significant rate. It was widespread, encompassing the entire observable universe. The key parameter which allows one to calculate the effects of BBN is the baryonphoton number ratio, which is a small number of order 6 x 1. This parameter corresponds to the baryon density and controls the rate at which nucleons collide and react from this it is possible to calculate element abundances after nucleosynthesis ends. Although the baryon per photon ratio is important in determining element abundances, the precise value makes little difference to the overall picture. Without major changes to the Big Bang theory itself, BBN will result in mass abundances of about 7. That the observed abundances in the universe are generally consistent with these abundance numbers is considered strong evidence for the Big Bang theory. In this field, for historical reasons it is customary to quote the helium 4 fraction by mass, symbol Y, so that 2. Other trace nuclei are usually expressed as number ratios to hydrogen. Important parameterseditThe creation of light elements during BBN was dependent on a number of parameters among those was the neutron proton ratio calculable from Standard Model physics and the baryon photon ratio. Bakugan Battle Game For Pc here. Neutronproton ratioeditThe neutron proton ratio was set by Standard Model physics before the nucleosynthesis era, essentially within the first 1 second after the Big Bang. Neutrons can react with positrons or electron neutrinos to create protons and other products in one of the following reactions neepdisplaystyle neleftrightarrow overline nu epnepedisplaystyle nnu eleftrightarrow pe At times much earlier than 1 sec, these reactions were fast and maintained the np ratio close to 1 1. As the temperature dropped, the equilibrium shifted in favour of protons due to their slightly lower mass, and the np ratio smoothly decreased. These reactions continued until the decreasing temperature and density caused the reactions to become too slow, which occurred at about T 0. Me. V time around 1 second and is called the freeze out temperature. At freeze out, the neutron proton ratio was about 16. However, free neutrons are unstable with a mean life of 8. Almost all neutrons that fused instead of decaying ended up combined into helium 4, due to the fact that helium 4 has the highest binding energy per nucleon among light elements. This predicts that about 8 of all atoms should be helium 4, leading to a mass fraction of helium 4 of about 2. Small traces of deuterium and helium 3 remained as there was insufficient time and density for them to react and form helium 4. Baryonphoton ratioeditThe baryonphoton ratio, is the key parameter determining the abundances of light elements after nucleosynthesis ends. Baryons and light elements can fuse in the following main reactions pn2. Hdisplaystyle pnrightarrow 2textHgamma p2. H3. Hedisplaystyle p2textHrightarrow 3textHegamma 2. H2. H3. Hendisplaystyle 2textH2textHrightarrow 3textHen2. H2. H3. Hpdisplaystyle 2textH2textHrightarrow 3textHp3. He2. H4. Hepdisplaystyle 3textHe2textHrightarrow 4textHep3. H2. H4. Hendisplaystyle 3textH2textHrightarrow 4textHenalong with some other low probability reactions leading to 7. Li or 7. Be. An important feature is that there are no stable nuclei with mass 5 or 8, which implies that reactions adding one baryon to 4. He, or fusing two 4. He, do not occur. Most fusion chains during BBN ultimately terminate in 4. He helium 4, while incomplete reaction chains lead to small amounts of left over 2. H or 3. He the amount of these decreases with increasing baryon photon ratio. That is, the larger the baryon photon ratio the more reactions there will be and the more efficiently deuterium will be eventually transformed into helium 4. This result makes deuterium a very useful tool in measuring the baryon to photon ratio. Sequenceedit. The main nuclear reaction chains for Big Bang nucleosynthesis. Big Bang nucleosynthesis began roughly 1. Note that the neutron proton freeze out time was earlier. This time is essentially independent of dark matter content, since the universe was highly radiation dominated until much later, and this dominant component controls the temperaturetime relation. At this time there were about six protons for every neutron, but a small fraction of the neutrons decay before fusing in the next few hundred seconds, so at the end of nucleosynthesis there are about seven protons to every neutron, and almost all the neutrons are in Helium 4 nuclei. The sequence of these reaction chains is shown on the image. One feature of BBN is that the physical laws and constants that govern the behavior of matter at these energies are very well understood, and hence BBN lacks some of the speculative uncertainties that characterize earlier periods in the life of the universe. Another feature is that the process of nucleosynthesis is determined by conditions at the start of this phase of the life of the universe, and proceeds independently of what happened before. As the universe expands, it cools. Free neutrons and protons are less stable than helium nuclei, and the protons and neutrons have a strong tendency to form helium 4. However, forming helium 4 requires the intermediate step of forming deuterium.